Although most handbooks and guides to e-learning will focus on systems and software, perhaps the most important factor is how people teach and learn - the pedagogy of e-learning. There are many different ways of teaching and of learning. Of course, effective forms of teaching and learning are really no different than using Information and Communication Technologies than they are in more traditional face-to-face contexts, although the use of technology as a mediating factor provides particular opportunities and problems.

In selecting an e-learning provider, or signing up for an e-learning programme, designing e-learning infrastructures, or selecting e-learning materials, the why and how of learning and teaching is probably more important than the what and when. A quick glance at the promotional material for any e-learning course or system will show that all claim to be interactive. But, interactivity can mean many different things from watching videos, navigating through text areas, providing answers to questions to participating in on-line discussions and taking part in complex scenarios.

A commonly used distinction in e-learning promotional material is between synchronous and asynchronous activities and applications. Synchronous means taking place in 'real time' such as on-line chat whilst asynchronous means taking place over a period of time - for instance e-mail. Whilst this may be a useful technical distinction, I am not so sure it is that useful when talking about learning. Most e-learning applications combine both synchronous and asynchronous activities.

6.1 Effective practice

A recent report published in the UK (JISC, 2004) says: "e-Learning can cover a spectrum of activities from supporting learning, to blended learning (the combination of traditional and e-learning practices), to learning that is delivered entirely online." Whatever technology is used, learning is the vital element. The report points out that e-learning is no longer simply associated with distance or remote learning, as in the past, but forms part of a conscious choice of the best and most appropriate provision of individuals or groups of learners. They suggest the following as a list of effective practice in teaching and learning. "Practice should:

• engage learners in the learning process,
• encourage independent learning skills, develop learners' skills and knowledge,
• motivate further learning."

There are many different forms of activities which can be used to help learning. These include:

• Listening to lectures and seminars - on the web or on CD ROMs
• Reading texts and manuals
• Searching for information and ideas
• Playing on line games
• Communicating with others - through e-mail, chat or on bulletin boards
• Responding to simple question and answer tests
• Researching subjects and issues
• Solving problems
• Taking part in simulations
• Working together as part of an on-line team
• Exploring on-line environments
• Developing personal portfolios
• Accessing Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs) or developing your own
• Asking questions of mentors or experts (ASKA systems or just email)

One system I have seen and like a lot is called "Learning Journeys". Although it is designed for school children the content is not so important. What I think is good is the idea that individual participating in e-learning are on a journey - finding things out, making sense of them and developing their own ideas as part of an activity for them to use and shape for their future practice.

In reality most e-learning will involve a combination of some or all of the activities I have listed above. But there are different perspectives involved in e-learning and although this handbook is intended as a practical guide, this issue is so important that it is worthwhile exploring a little further into some of the research and theory behind learning. You can always skip this section if you wish, but I hope you will find it interesting and useful.

6.2 Understanding learning

Researchers have identified three clusters or broad perspectives, which make fundamentally different assumptions about what is crucial for understanding learning (Jonassen & Land, 2000, Mayes and de Freitas). These are:

• Learning as activity - called the associationist / empiricist perspective
• Learning as achieving understanding - called the cognitive perspective
• Learning as social practice - called the situative perspective.

E-learning can support any one of these different ways of learning - and in reality learners may combine different approaches. However, there are big implications as to which perspective is being followed. These implications include how learners are gaining new skills and knowledge and how they use then in the workplace and what pedagogies are used by teachers and trainers. Different forms of learning require different approaches to teaching and may also imply the use of different e-learning technologies.

The following table, 'Defining approaches to learning', from the JISC report, 'Effective Practice with e-learning' (2004) draws out the implications of these different approaches. The table has three columns. The left column - perspective - relates to the three clusters listed above. The middle column - assumptions - relates to the different ways in which learners gain new skills and knowledge. The right hand column - associated pedagogy - relates to different approaches from teachers and trainers to using e-learning technologies.

6.3 What perspective to adopt

There is not one right answer as to which perspective you should encourage or adopt for your organisation. Some researchers have suggested we all have our own individual learning style although I am unconvinced about this. I think it more likely that we learn in different ways at different times and in different situations and depending on what it is we are learning and for what purpose.

A lot depends on what is being learnt and how the learner is expected to use what they have learnt in their every day work.

For instance, if you are mainly concerned that workers develop their everyday competence to undertake tasks in the workplace an appropriate way of doing this is probably to develop their skills by building progressively complex actions from component skills. This may involve developing and practicing routines of organised activity and progressive difficulty and setting clear goals and feedback. Coming from this perspective it is important that the learning builds on past competence and experience so learners really need individual learning programmes.

On the other hand if the aim of the e-learning activity is to train a team to work together around the development and implementation of new work processes then a better approach may be through collaborative activities and / or through dialogue. Activities might include interaction in environments for knowledge building, encouraging the shared expression of ideas and providing support for reflection, peer review and evaluation.

One thing which may influence decisions over the best ways for people from your enterprise to learn is what facilities you have to support their learning. Whilst e-learning takes place largely through an ICT supported environment, learning is much more powerful when it is linked to practice. This can be difficult in schools. Small and medium enterprises can provide a rich environment to, for example, develop and practice 'routines of organised activity and progressive difficulty' for competence development.

Support for learners is a key issue in any e-learning programme. This will be the focus of the next section.

6.4 Key issues

• What combination of activities do you think will best enable learning in your enterprise?
• What are the main long-term aims of learning and training for your enterprise?
• Which of the perspectives listed in this section do you think best meet the needs of workers in your enterprises?
• How can you link learning to practice?